{"id":157,"date":"2026-07-18T22:50:42","date_gmt":"2026-07-19T05:50:42","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/wliu.com\/?page_id=157"},"modified":"2026-07-18T22:50:42","modified_gmt":"2026-07-19T05:50:42","slug":"research-areas","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/wliu.com\/ja\/research\/research-areas\/","title":{"rendered":"Research Areas"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"wliu-research-root\">\n<section class=\"library-hero\">\n<p class=\"eyebrow\">Research foundations<\/p>\n<h1>Four research domains that explain applicant reactions<\/h1>\n<p>Definitions, core dimensions, representative researchers, and linked foundational publications underlying William Liu\u2019s research.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"field-list\">\n<article>\n<header><span>01<\/span><\/p>\n<div>\n<p class=\"eyebrow\">Applicant reactions<\/p>\n<h2>How do applicants perceive and respond to selection procedures?<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<\/header>\n<p class=\"field-definition\">Applicant reactions are applicants\u2019 perceptions, attitudes, emotions, intentions, and behaviors arising from the selection process. The field examines how applicants experience interviews, assessments, explanations, rejection, digital selection procedures, and organizational representatives\u2014not only whether a selection procedure predicts performance.<\/p>\n<div class=\"field-columns\">\n<section>\n<h3>Core dimensions<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Fairness and justice perceptions<\/li>\n<li>Test motivation, anxiety, self-efficacy, and opportunity to perform<\/li>\n<li>Organizational attractiveness, job pursuit, and offer acceptance<\/li>\n<li>Recommendation, reapplication, withdrawal, and legal-challenge intentions<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<h3>Representative researchers and works<\/h3>\n<ul class=\"scholar-list\">\n<li><strong>Stephen W. Gilliland<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/258595\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">The Perceived Fairness of Selection Systems (1993) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Ann Marie Ryan &amp; Robert Ployhart<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1744-6570.2000.tb00204.x\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">Applicants\u2019 Perceptions of Selection Procedures and Decisions (2000) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Talya Bauer and colleagues<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1744-6570.2001.tb00097.x\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">Selection Procedural Justice Scale (2001) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>John Hausknecht, David Day &amp; Scott Thomas<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1744-6570.2004.00003.x\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">Applicant Reactions Meta-Analysis (2004) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Julie McCarthy and colleagues<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0149206316681846\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">Applicant Perspectives During Selection (2017) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<blockquote><p>William\u2019s thesis extends this tradition by identifying organizational identification as a mediator connecting interpersonal treatment with recommendation intentions.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/article>\n<article>\n<header><span>02<\/span><\/p>\n<div>\n<p class=\"eyebrow\">Organizational justice<\/p>\n<h2>Was the process, outcome, explanation, and treatment fair?<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<\/header>\n<p class=\"field-definition\">Organizational justice concerns perceived fairness in organizational decisions, procedures, and interpersonal treatment. Applicants evaluate both the selection decision and how the organization reached and communicated it.<\/p>\n<div class=\"field-columns\">\n<section>\n<h3>Core dimensions<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Distributive justice: fairness of the outcome<\/li>\n<li>Procedural justice: consistency, accuracy, bias suppression, and voice<\/li>\n<li>Interpersonal justice: dignity, politeness, and respect<\/li>\n<li>Informational justice: adequate, truthful, and timely explanations<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<h3>Representative researchers and works<\/h3>\n<ul class=\"scholar-list\">\n<li><strong>Jerald Greenberg<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/record\/1993-97761-004\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">The Social Side of Fairness (1993) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Robert Folger &amp; Mary Konovsky<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5465\/256422\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">Effects of Procedural and Distributive Justice (1989) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>E. Allan Lind &amp; Tom R. Tyler<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/record\/1988-98408-000\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">The Social Psychology of Procedural Justice (1988) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Jason A. Colquitt<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0021-9010.86.3.386\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">On the Dimensionality of Organizational Justice (2001) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Stephen W. Gilliland<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/258595\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">The Perceived Fairness of Selection Systems (1993) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<blockquote><p>Interpersonal treatment was the only justice-related dimension in the thesis that uniquely predicted organizational identification. Procedural justice may be necessary without being sufficient to establish pre-entry identification.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/article>\n<article>\n<header><span>03<\/span><\/p>\n<div>\n<p class=\"eyebrow\">Group-value theory<\/p>\n<h2>What does treatment communicate about my standing in the group?<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<\/header>\n<p class=\"field-definition\">Group-value theory argues that fair treatment matters partly because it communicates whether an applicant is respected, trusted, and included as a prospective member of a valued group. Organizational justice therefore conveys identity-relevant information beyond the selection outcome.<\/p>\n<div class=\"field-columns\">\n<section>\n<h3>Core dimensions<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Neutrality: decisions appear unbiased and principled<\/li>\n<li>Trustworthiness: authorities show benevolent and reliable motives<\/li>\n<li>Standing: treatment communicates dignity, status, and inclusion<\/li>\n<li>Identity: group membership becomes relevant to the self-concept<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<h3>Representative researchers and works<\/h3>\n<ul class=\"scholar-list\">\n<li><strong>E. Allan Lind &amp; Tom R. Tyler<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/record\/1988-98408-000\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">The Social Psychology of Procedural Justice (1988) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Tom R. Tyler &amp; E. Allan Lind<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/record\/1992-98786-003\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">A Relational Model of Authority in Groups (1992) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Tom R. Tyler &amp; Steven L. Blader<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1207\/S15327957PSPR0704_07\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">The Group Engagement Model (2003) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<blockquote><p>An applicant may interpret respect and sincerity as evidence of future membership: \u2018Is this how applicants like me are treated here?\u2019 This supplies the theoretical bridge from interpersonal treatment to organizational identification.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/article>\n<article>\n<header><span>04<\/span><\/p>\n<div>\n<p class=\"eyebrow\">Organizational identification<\/p>\n<h2>Does this organization feel like part of who I am?<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<\/header>\n<p class=\"field-definition\">Organizational identification is a perceived sense of oneness with an organization and the experience of its successes and failures as one\u2019s own. It is identity-based\u2014not simply satisfaction, attraction, commitment, or an intention to stay.<\/p>\n<div class=\"field-columns\">\n<section>\n<h3>Core dimensions<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Self-categorization: thinking of oneself as an organizational member<\/li>\n<li>Oneness and belonging: a psychological connection with the collective<\/li>\n<li>Shared fate: organizational praise, criticism, success, or failure feels personal<\/li>\n<li>Pre-entry identification: imagining \u2018we\u2019 before formal membership begins<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<h3>Representative researchers and works<\/h3>\n<ul class=\"scholar-list\">\n<li><strong>Blake Ashforth &amp; Fred Mael<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/258189\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">Social Identity Theory and the Organization (1989) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Fred Mael &amp; Blake Ashforth<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/job.4030130202\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">Alumni and Their Alma Mater (1992) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Jane Dutton, Janet Dukerich &amp; Celia Harquail<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/2393235\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">Organizational Images and Member Identification (1994) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Michael G. Pratt<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/sk.sagepub.com\/book\/mono\/identity-in-organizations\/chpt\/central-questions-organizational-identification\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">To Be or Not to Be? Central Questions in Organizational Identification (1998) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Michael Riketta<\/strong><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jvb.2004.05.005\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer\">Organizational Identification: A Meta-Analysis (2005) \u2197<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<blockquote><p>William positions organizational identification as the mechanism that converts interpersonal treatment into recommendation intentions\u2014an early stage of the psychological employment relationship.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/article>\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"concept-path\">\n<p class=\"eyebrow\">The integrated pathway<\/p>\n<div><strong>Applicant reactions<\/strong><b>\u2192<\/b><strong>Organizational justice<\/strong><b>\u2192<\/b><strong>Group value<\/strong><b>\u2192<\/b><strong>Organizational identification<\/strong><b>\u2192<\/b><strong>Advocacy<\/strong><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/wliu.com\/ja\/research\/practical-implications\/\" class=\"button button-primary\">Translate the evidence into practice<\/a><\/section>\n<\/div>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Research foundations Four research domains that explain applicant reactions Definitions, core dimensions, representative researchers, and linked foundational publications underlying William Liu\u2019s research. 01 Applicant reactions How do applicants perceive and respond to selection procedures? Applicant reactions are applicants\u2019 perceptions, attitudes, emotions, intentions, and behaviors arising from the selection process. The field examines how applicants experience interviews, assessments, explanations, rejection, digital selection procedures, and organizational representatives\u2014not only whether a selection procedure predicts performance. Core dimensions Fairness and justice perceptions Test motivation, anxiety, self-efficacy, and opportunity to perform Organizational attractiveness, job pursuit, and offer acceptance Recommendation, reapplication, withdrawal, and legal-challenge intentions Representative researchers and works Stephen W. GillilandThe Perceived Fairness of Selection [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":7681674,"featured_media":0,"parent":146,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"content-type":"","advanced_seo_description":"","jetpack_seo_html_title":"","jetpack_seo_noindex":false,"jetpack_seo_schema_type":"","_wpcom_ai_launchpad_about_page":false,"_wpcom_ai_launchpad_gallery_page":false,"_wpcom_ai_launchpad_contact_page":false,"_wpcom_ai_launchpad_events_page":false,"_wpcom_ai_launchpad_video_page":false,"_wpcom_ai_launchpad_portfolio_piece":false,"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-157","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"jetpack_likes_enabled":true,"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/PgYf2o-2x","jetpack-related-posts":[{"id":159,"url":"https:\/\/wliu.com\/ja\/research\/future-research\/","url_meta":{"origin":157,"position":0},"title":"Future Research","author":"William Liu","date":"7\u6708 18, 2026","format":false,"excerpt":"Dissertation research agendaTrust and identification in AI-enabled selectionA multi-study, cross-cultural research program examining how applicants determine whether an organization\u2014and the technology acting on its behalf\u2014is worthy of trust and organizational identification.The modelSix constructsThree studiesResearch questionsReferencesProposed theoretical modelFrom an experience to a relationshipSelection encounters generate justice judgments. Those judgments communicate relational\u2026","rel":"","context":"\u985e\u4f3c\u6295\u7a3f","block_context":{"text":"\u985e\u4f3c\u6295\u7a3f","link":""},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":162,"url":"https:\/\/wliu.com\/ja\/research\/references\/","url_meta":{"origin":157,"position":1},"title":"References","author":"William Liu","date":"7\u6708 18, 2026","format":false,"excerpt":"Complete thesis bibliographyReferences and source linksAll 51 distinct bibliography entries appearing in the thesis reference section, with DOI or source links where the submitted thesis provides them.51thesis reference entriesThe earlier web page contained a selected reading list. This page now mirrors the complete bibliography section of the thesis source. Entries\u2026","rel":"","context":"\u985e\u4f3c\u6295\u7a3f","block_context":{"text":"\u985e\u4f3c\u6295\u7a3f","link":""},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":160,"url":"https:\/\/wliu.com\/ja\/research\/practical-implications\/","url_meta":{"origin":157,"position":2},"title":"Practical Implications","author":"William Liu","date":"7\u6708 18, 2026","format":false,"excerpt":"Practical implicationsTurn applicant treatment into trust, organizational identification, and advocacyEight evidence-informed actions for organizations designing human, AI-enabled, and hybrid selection systems.01Design selection around applicant dignityTreat respect, responsiveness, and communication quality as selection-design requirements. Valid tools and consistent procedures matter, but applicants also use interpersonal treatment to infer whether they would\u2026","rel":"","context":"\u985e\u4f3c\u6295\u7a3f","block_context":{"text":"\u985e\u4f3c\u6295\u7a3f","link":""},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":156,"url":"https:\/\/wliu.com\/ja\/research\/thesis\/","url_meta":{"origin":157,"position":3},"title":"Organizational Identification: Key to Applicant Recommendation Intentions","author":"William Liu","date":"7\u6708 18, 2026","format":false,"excerpt":"The thesis explores how respectful treatment during the selection process impacts organizational identification and recommendation intentions among applicants. It emphasizes that interpersonal treatment significantly predicts organizational identification, which in turn influences applicants\u2019 willingness to recommend the organization. The research highlights the importance of applicant dignity and trust, especially with AI\u2026","rel":"","context":"\u985e\u4f3c\u6295\u7a3f","block_context":{"text":"\u985e\u4f3c\u6295\u7a3f","link":""},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":161,"url":"https:\/\/wliu.com\/ja\/research\/oxford-chapter\/","url_meta":{"origin":157,"position":4},"title":"Oxford Chapter","author":"William Liu","date":"7\u6708 18, 2026","format":false,"excerpt":"Oxford University Press \u00b7 Book chapter \u00b7 2026Applicant Reactions to Testing and SelectionThirty-five years of research on how applicants experience assessment\u2014and what changes when technology and artificial intelligence enter the process.Stephen W. Gilliland \u00b7 Wei (William) Liu \u00b7 Dirk D. SteinerRead at Oxford Academic \u2197Gilliland, S. W., Liu, W., &\u2026","rel":"","context":"\u985e\u4f3c\u6295\u7a3f","block_context":{"text":"\u985e\u4f3c\u6295\u7a3f","link":""},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":158,"url":"https:\/\/wliu.com\/ja\/research\/bibliometric\/","url_meta":{"origin":157,"position":5},"title":"Bibliometric Study","author":"William Liu","date":"7\u6708 18, 2026","format":false,"excerpt":"Bibliometric review \u00b7 Working paper \u00b7 2026A Bibliographic Coupling Analysis of the Frontier of Applicant Reactions ResearchMapping how applicant-reactions scholarship evolved from organizational justice, through psychological mechanisms, to a rapidly growing frontier of AI and digital selection.Wei (William) Liu \u00b7 Claremont Graduate UniversityView submitted manuscript \u2197410documents identified100strongly coupled papers analyzed3intellectual\u2026","rel":"","context":"\u985e\u4f3c\u6295\u7a3f","block_context":{"text":"\u985e\u4f3c\u6295\u7a3f","link":""},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]}],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/wliu.com\/ja\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/157","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/wliu.com\/ja\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/wliu.com\/ja\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/wliu.com\/ja\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/7681674"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/wliu.com\/ja\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=157"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/wliu.com\/ja\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/157\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":191,"href":"https:\/\/wliu.com\/ja\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/157\/revisions\/191"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/wliu.com\/ja\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/146"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/wliu.com\/ja\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=157"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}